Gender Di erences in High School Mathematics Achievement: An Empirical Application of the Propensity Score Adjustment

Research over the past twentyve years indicates that gender di erences in math achievement favoring males are not typically found prior to high school. In high school, di erences favoring males are common, particularly in the areas of problem solving and applications. The gender-related di erences in math achievement have been attributed to a number of variables, most notably, di erential coursetaking patterns and exposure to math, di erent learning styles, teacher behavior and learning environment, parental attitudes and expectations, and socioeconomic status as well as other background characteristics of students. One problem that is not addressed in this research is the inability to isolate the e ects of gender socialization from observed biological sex when observational data is used. One method by which the e ects of environment and socialization may be controlled for involves the use of a propensity score, as developed by Rosenbaum and Rubin, for gender. The gender propensity score contains the combined e ects of the environmental and socialization variables associated with gender and math achievement and was used as an independent variable in an OLS regression model of math achievement on biological sex. One important goal of this research was to examine gender di erences in math achievement over time while controlling for factors that contribute to the gender di erences and are associated with gender, such as math course-taking patterns. It was anticipated that with the inclusion of the gender propensity score, the gender di erences in math achievement that are found using observed biological sex as a predictor would greatly diminished. This study uses panel data from the student component of the National Educational Longitudinal Survey of 1988 (NELS:88). The three outcome variables include the IRT (Item Response Theory) number correct on the math achievement tests for the 8th, 10th, and 12th grades. The analysis revealed evidence of the imposition of gender-stereotypical expectations upon students and genderstereotyped behaviors. Males receive more encouragement than females from parents and teachers to take math classes, and the expectations for the achievement and educational aspirations for males are higher than for females. Females are more likely to rely on the opinions of peers when making decisions about taking math. Neither observed sex nor gender socialization, indicated by the gender propensity score, have a large e ect on mathematics achievement. The greatest e ects on math achievement were produced by previous math achievement. It is unclear from this analysis if the gender propensity score, either as a theoretical measure of socialization or as a statistical balancing adjustment, improves the prediction of math achievement.